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before taking a flight review. I have written them in ENGLISH rather than lawyer talk.
Enjoy!
1. Pilot in command
2. Airworthiness for civil aircraft
3. Flight manual, markings and placards
4. Dropping of objects
5. Alcohol and drugs
6. Carrying drugs
7. Preflight action
8. Seat belts and shoulder harnesses for crew members
9. Seat belts and shoulder harnesses for passengers
10. Operating near other aircraft
11. Right of way rules
12. Speed limits
13. Minimum safe altitudes
14. Altimeter settings
15. Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions
16. ATC light gun signals
17. Operating in class G
18. Fuel requirements for flight in VFR conditions
19. VFR cruising altitudes
20. Certificates required
21. Instrument and equipment requirements
22. Emergency locater transmitters
23. Aircraft lights
24. Supplemental oxygen
25. Transponder use
26. Aerobatic flight
27. General Maintenance
28. Operations after maintenance
29. Aircraft inspections
30. Maintenance records
Pilot in command (PIC) Responsibility and authority 91. 3 The pilot in command of an
aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to the operation of that aircraft. During an emergency the
PIC can break any rule to help deal with the emergency. If this happens, and the Administrator requests a report of the
deviation, then the PIC must send in a written report describing what happened.
Airworthiness for Civil aircraft 91.7 No one is allowed to operate an unairworthy aircraft. It is up to
the Pilot in Command to determine whether or not an aircraft is airworthy before flying it. If anything happens during a
flight that causes the aircraft to no longer be airworthy then the flight must be discontinued as soon as possible.
Civil aircraft flight manual, markings, and placards 91. 9 There are operating limitations for
every aircraft and they are found in the aircraft’s flight manual, markings and placards placed in the cockpit. No pilot is
allowed to operate an aircraft without complying with those operating limitations. So if a placard in the plane says “no
spins” then you better not spin that aircraft or you will be busting reg. 91.9
Dropping objects 91.15 The pilot in command has the final authority to what gets dropped out of the
aircraft being flown. Nothing is allowed to be dropped if it creates a hazard to any person or property. If reasonable
precautions are taken to avoid injury or damage to persons or property then the PIC can allow the drop. A good
example is dropping skydivers. It is against the regulations to drop skydivers through clouds… so if there is a layer of
clouds below the aircraft, the PIC can not allow the skydivers to jump.
Alcohol & drugs 91. 17
No person is allowed to act as a crew member on an aircraft within 8 hours after the consumption of any alcoholic
beverage.
No person is allowed to act as a crew member on an aircraft while under the influence of alcohol
No person is allowed to act as a crew member on an aircraft while having .04 percent by weight, or more, alcohol in the
blood.
No person is allowed to act as a crew member on an aircraft while using any drug that affects the person’s ability to
naturally think.
No pilot is allowed to carry any person who appears to be under the influence of drugs or alcohol except for medical
patients who are being cared for.
Carrying narcotics, marijuana, depressants and stimulant drugs or substances
91. 19
No person may operate a civil aircraft within the U.S. with knowledge that illegal narcotics, marijuana, depressants, or
stimulant drugs are on board.
Preflight action 91. 103 Before beginning a flight the Pilot in Command must become familiar with all
available information concerning that flight… that information must include:
1. Runway lengths at airports of intended use (Sectional)
2. Runway slope (AFD)
3. Density altitude calculations (ASOS)
4. Aircraft gross weight (just do a weight and balance)
5. Wind and temperature (ASOS, ATIS or METARS)
6. Take off and landing distance calculations
7. A flight manual containing takeoff and landing distance data
If the flight will not be in the vicinity of an airport (even to the South Practice Area) (or conducted under IFR) the pilot in
command must become familiar with:
1. Weather reports and forecasts (I.E. A Legal Weather Briefing)
2. Fuel requirements (How much Fuel Do you need)
3. Alternates available
4. Known traffic delays from ATC
Remember this stuff by using the acronym “NWKRAFT”
N Notams (Notices to Airmen)
W Weather (a legal weather brief from a FSS)
K Known ATC delays
R Runway lengths
A Alternates
F Fuel Requirements
T Takeoff & Landing Distances
Flight crew members at stations and seatbelt / shoulder harness rules 91. 105
Anytime the aircraft is in the air (takeoff, landing, enroute) the pilots have to be in their seats with their seat belts on.
They are allowed to remove the shoulder harness while enroute, but during takeoff and landing the shoulder harness
must be on if the seat is equipped with a shoulder harness. The above does not apply if for some reason the operation
of the aircraft demands that the pilot not be seated with the seat belts and shoulder harness on …or if one of the pilots
is sick (physiological needs).
Safety belts, shoulder harnesses, and child restraint devices for Pax 91. 107
No pilot may take off in a U.S. civil aircraft unless the PIC ensures that the passengers know how to operate their seat
belts, shoulder harnesses, and any child restraint devices.
No pilot may take off in a U.S. civil aircraft unless the PIC ensures that each passenger has been notified to fasten their
seat belts, and if installed, their shoulder harness.
Each person on board a U.S. civil aircraft must occupy an approved seat or berth and have the seat belt (and shoulder
harness if installed) fastened during any movement on the ground (taxi), takeoff and landing. Passengers may unfasten
their seat belts and shoulder harnesses only during the cruise phase of flight. A child under the age of two may be held
by a passenger. A child may occupy an approved child restraint system if the child is accompanied by a parent or
guardian.
Operating near other aircraft 91. 111
You are not allowed to fly an aircraft so close to another aircraft that it creates a collision hazard.
You are only allowed to fly in formation flight when arranged to do so with the PIC of each aircraft that will be flying in
formation.
Formation flight is not allowed when carrying passengers for hire.
Right of way rules 91. 113
For both VFR and IFR, when you see another aircraft you must avoid it. This is called “see and avoid”.
Who has the right of way?
An aircraft in distress has the right of way over all other aircraft.
When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same altitude (but not head on) the aircraft on your right has the
right of way…(except when the aircraft on the left is in distress)
A balloon has the right of way over any other aircraft (except when any other aircraft is in distress)
A glider has the right of way over an airship (blimp), airplane or rotorcraft (helicopter)… (except when any other aircraft
is in distress).
An airship (blimp) has the right of way over an airplane or rotorcraft (helicopter)… (except when any other aircraft is in
distress).
An aircraft towing or refueling has the right of way over any engine driven aircraft, which would normally be an airplane,
helicopter, and blimp…(except when any other aircraft is in distress)
Approaching head on? When aircraft are approaching each other head on, or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft
shall alter their course to the right.
Overtaking aircraft? An aircraft that is being overtaken has the right of way. The pilot, when overtaking another aircraft,
shall alter his or her course to the right to pass well clear of the slower aircraft.
Landing aircraft? When an aircraft is on final approach to land, it has the right of way over other aircraft in the area
…and aircraft that are on the ground. This rule is not to be taken advantage of to force an aircraft that has already
landed to prematurely be forced off the runway to make way for you on final.
When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has
the right of way… but if an aircraft at a slightly higher altitude is already on final before the lower aircraft then the lower
airplane should yield to the higher aircraft already on final. This rule should not be taken advantage by overtaking
another aircraft purposefully to get on final first.
Aircraft speed limits 91. 117
Below 10,000 feet MSL the speed limit must be below 250 knots (288 MPH)
While flying 2,500 feet AGL or less within 4 nautical miles of a Class C or D airport the speed limit is 200 knots (230
MPH)
While flying through Class Bravo airspace the speed limit is 250 knots (288 MPH)
While flying through a class Bravo VFR corridor the speed limit is 200 knots (230 MPH)
Exceptions: You may fly faster than these speed limits if ATC tells you to, or the minimum safe airspeed for the aircraft
being flown is faster than these speed limits.
Minimum safe altitudes 91. 119
This is the “how low am I allowed to go” rules.
Except when taking off or landing no person may operate an aircraft below the following altitudes:
ANYWHERE: Whenever and wherever you fly, you must fly at a high enough altitude to ensure that if you lost power and
had to make an emergency landing, you could do so without undue hazard to people or property on the ground.
Over Congested Areas: If you are flying over any city, town, settlement or any open assembly of people, you must
remain at least 1000 feet above the highest point within a radius of 2000 feet.
Over non-congested areas: If you are flying over any open area (fields for instance) you must remain at least 500 feet
above the ground and not get closer than 500 feet from any people, vehicles or structures. If you are flying over open
water you can go as low as you like as long as you do not fly closer than 500 feet from any people, ships, vehicles or
structures.
Altimeter settings 91. 121
If you are flying below 18,000 feet MSL you need to set your altimeter to the current reported altimeter setting of a
station along your route within 100 nautical miles. If there is no station within 100 nautical miles set the altimeter to your
departure airport’s altitude.
If you are flying above 18,000 MSL then set your altimeter to standard pressure altitude… put 29.92 in the kollsman
window.
Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions 91 123
When ATC issues you a clearance you must follow that clearance. There are only four exceptions…When:
1. ATC gives you an amended clearance
2. An emergency exists (you may have to issue a written report of your emergency within 48 hours if requested by
ATC)
3. The deviation is in response to a traffic alert (tell ATC as soon as possible)
4. The deviation is in response to a collision avoidance systems resolution advisory.(you need to alert ATC of this
as soon as possible)
If you are unclear or your better judgement tells you the clearance is wrong or dangerous, you should immediately
request clarification from ATC.
ATC light gun signals 91. 125
Color & type of signal What it means when you are on the ground What it means when you are in the air
Steady Green Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land
Flashing Green Cleared to taxi Return for landing (to be followed by steady Green at proper time)
Steady Red Stop Give way to other aircraft and continue circling
Flashing Red Taxi clear of runway in use Airport unsafe… do not land
Flashing White Return to starting point on airport… IE… parking Not applicable
Alternating Red and Green Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution
Operating on or in the vicinity of an airport in class G airspace 91. 126
Direction of turns: All traffic patterns should be left unless the segmented circle indicates otherwise.
Helicopters: All helicopters must avoid the flow of airplanes.
Flap settings: Flaps should be used as prescribed in the airplane’s flight manual. Only for training purposes or for
certification you are allowed to perform no flap landings.
Tower on the field: If there is a tower on the field as there is at Dillingham, you must make two way radio communication.
You must make radio communication within 4 nautical miles of the airport if you are at or below 2,500 feet AGL. If your
radio fails you may still land but you need to maintain VFR conditions, visual contact with the tower, and receive a
clearance to land. (does this mean light gun signals? It does not say).
Fuel Requirements for flight in VFR conditions 91.151
During the day you need to have enough usable fuel on board to fly to your destination plus a half-hour.
During the night you need to have enough usable fuel on board to fly to your destination plus forty-five minutes.
VFR cruising altitudes 91. 159
If you are flying VFR above 3,000 feet MSL and below 29,000 feet MSL on a magnetic course (not magnetic heading)
easterly…from zero degrees to 179 degrees you must fly at odd thousand foot altitudes plus 500 feet. For example
that would mean:
3,500
5,500
7,500
9,500 and on and on in this way
When you get up to 18,000 feet and above the altitudes are called flight levels
If you are flying VFR above 3,000 feet on a magnetic course (not a magnetic
heading) Westerly…from 180 degrees to 359 degrees you must fly at even thousand foot altitudes plus 500 feet. For
example, that would mean:
4,500
6,500
8,500
10,500 and on and on in this way.
When you get up to 18,000 feet and above the altitudes are called flight levels
If you are flying VFR above 29,000 feet MSL (flight level 290) on a magnetic course from zero degrees to 179 degrees
you must fly at 4000 foot intervals that begin at 30,000 feet MSL (flight level 300) Such as flight levels:
300
340
380
420
460 etc…
If you are flying VFR above 29,000 feet MSL (flight level 290) on a magnetic course from 180 degrees to 359 degrees
you must fly at 4000 foot intervals that begin at 32,000 feet MSL (flight level 320) Such as flight levels:
320
360
400 etc…
***** In Hawaii Below 3,000 MSL fly these altitudes:
1,000 2,000 3,000 on westerly headings
1,500 2,500 on easterly headings
Certificates required for civil aircraft 91. 203
The aircraft needs to have an appropriate and current Airworthiness Certificate which remains valid for as long as the
plane is kept airworthy and all AD’s (airworthiness Directives) are dealt with.
The aircraft also needs to have an effective registration Certificate. Temporary registrations are not valid when flying
Internationally and registrations remain valid as long as the plane does not change ownership, the owner does not die,
or when the aircraft becomes registered in another country.
Instrument and equipment requirements 91. 205 B, C, & D
For VFR day the aircraft needs:
1. Airspeed indicator
2. Altimeter
3. Magnetic direction indicator (a compass)
4. Tachometer for each engine
5. Oil pressure gauge for each engine
6. Temperature gauge for each liquid cooled engine
7. Oil temperature gauge for each air cooled engine
8. Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
9. Fuel gauge for each fuel tank
10. Landing gear position indicator for retractable gear (three green lights)
11. Anti-collision light red or white
12. Flotation gear for each occupant, one flare
13. Safety belt for each occupant
14. Shoulder harness for each front seat
15. An ELT (emergency locater transmitter)
For VFR at night the aircraft needs everything above plus:
1. Position lights
2. Anti-collision light red or white
3. Electric landing light if operated for hire
4. A source of electrical energy for electric equipment and radio
5. Three fuses of each kind used (if fuses are used)
For IFR flight day or night the aircraft needs everything above plus:
1. Two way communication radio and navigation radio
2. Turn indicator or turn coordinator
3. Slip skid ball
4. Sensitive altimeter
5. Clock with hands or digital readout of seconds, minutes and hour
6. Generator or alternator
7. Attitude indicator
8. Heading indicator
Emergency locater transmitters (ELT) 91.207
There are about 15 exceptions listed under this regulation, but for most day to day circumstances, to operate an aircraft
there must be an ELT installed in the aircraft in a place where it would suffer the least amount of damage if there were a
crash… this usually means somewhere rear of the baggage area..
The ELT Battery The battery must be replaced when the ELT has been in use for more than one cumulative hour or
when 50% of its useful life has expired… this date must be clearly marked on the outside of the ELT.
ELT Inspection: The ELT must be inspected within 12 calendar months from when it was last inspected.
Aircraft Lights 91. 209
Between sunset and sunrise (nighttime) you can’t fly, park or move an aircraft unless the position lights are on and… if it
has anti-collision lights, they must be on (unless the PIC determines for safety they should be off).
Supplemental oxygen:
For all aircraft, but usually ones that are not pressurized:
When flying an aircraft where the cabin pressure is above 12,500 MSL but less than 14,000 MSL… after 30 minutes
between these altitudes all crew members will need to use supplemental oxygen
When the cabin pressure is above 14,000 feet MSL all crew members must use supplemental oxygen.
When the cabin pressure altitude is above 15,000 feet MSL all occupants must be provided with supplemental oxygen.
For Pressurized aircraft:
When flying above 25,000 feet MSL (flight level 250) every occupant must have at least a ten-minute supply of
supplemental oxygen in case of an emergency depressurization.
When flying below 41,000 feet MSL (flight level 410 & above FL 350) if there are two pilots at the controls and each one
has a “quick donning” oxygen mask that they can put on with one hand within 5 seconds they do not have to be wearing
any supplemental oxygen masks…. But…
When flying above 35,000 feet MSL (flight level 350) with only one pilot at the controls, that pilot must be wearing an
oxygen mask that is either providing oxygen continuously, or will automatically provide oxygen if the cabin pressure
altitude rises above 14,000 feet MSL
ATC transponder and altitude reporting equipment and use 91. 215
All aircraft need to be equipped and use a transponder (usually a mode C) when operating in Class A, B, C airspace,
when below 10,000 feet MSL but over class C or B airspace, Above 10,000 feet MSL, and within the 30 mile class Bravo
Mode C vale.
When can you fly in the above areas without a transponder?
When your mode-C capability (the part that tells ATC your altitude) is not functioning you may request to fly through the
above airspace at any time.
When Your transponder is broken and you want to fly to your final destination or to a place where you can get the
transponder fixed, you may request to fly through the above airspace at any time.
When your aircraft does not have a transponder your request to fly through certain airspace must be made at least one
hour prior to the flight.
Aerobatic flight 91. 303
Aerobatic flight means an intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in an aircraft’s attitude, an abnormal
attitude, an abnormal acceleration, all of which are not necessary for normal flight.
You are not allowed to participate in aerobatic flight when:
1. Over a congested area of a city, town or settlement
2. Over an open assembly of people
3. Within class B, C, D, or E that is designated for an airport
4. Within 4 nautical miles from the centerline of a Federal airway
5. Below 1,500 feet of the surface
6. And when flight visibility is less than 3 miles.
General Maintenance 91. 403
Who is responsible for having maintenance done? The owner or operator of an aircraft is primarily responsible for
making sure the aircraft is being maintained and is airworthy.
Airworthiness directives: An airworthiness Directive is a publication that the FAA sends out to all aircraft owners for a
specific type of aircraft. It is sent out to inform the owners that something about the aircraft has been found to be
unsafe. It tells the owner what needs to be done to make the aircraft safe again and therefore make it “airworthy”
If the FAA puts out an airworthiness directive for a specific type of aircraft, the changes advised in the airworthiness
directive must be completed within the time limit or the aircraft will no longer be considered airworthy.
Operations after maintenance, preventative maintenance, rebuilding or alteration
91. 407
If an aircraft has undergone maintenance, preventative maintenance, rebuilding or alteration it is not allowed to be flown
until it has been checked out by a certified aviation mechanic and the proper maintenance paperwork has been put in
that aircraft’s maintenance logbook..
The same aircraft can not carry passengers until the aircraft has been test flown by at least a private pilot and that pilot
has determined that the aircraft is safe. That pilot must then log the test flight in the aircraft’s maintenance records. If
the above maintenance can be proven to not change the flight characteristics of the airplane then this test flight does
not have to be performed.
Aircraft Inspections 91. 409
Annual Inspections: All aircraft must have an annual (12 calendar month) inspection by a certified IA (Inspector Aircraft)
mechanic. If this inspection is not done within the 12 months the aircraft is no longer considered airworthy until the
inspection is complete.
100 hour Inspections: If an aircraft is being operated for hire or for flight instruction then it must have inspections every
100 hours as counted on the tachometer. An annual can count for a 100-hour inspection but not the other way around.
The 100 hours can be exceeded by no more than 10 hours but only to get it to the location of the inspection. This
excess time must be included into the next 100-hour inspection.
Maintenance Records 91. 417
Records must be kept whenever an aircraft has maintenance, preventative maintenance, alterations, 100-hour
inspections, annual inspections and any other kinds of inspections done to it.
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